'Bionic' plants can detect explosives

Anti-vehicle mine Image copyright Getty Images

Scientists have transformed the humble spinach plant into a bomb detector.

By embedding tiny tubes in the plants' leaves, they can be made to pick up chemicals called nitro-aromatics, which are found in landmines and buried munitions.

Real-time information can then be wirelessly relayed to a handheld device.

The MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) work is published in the journal Nature Materials.

The scientists implanted nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes (tiny cylinders of carbon) into the leaves of the spinach plant. It takes about 10 minutes for the spinach to take up the water into the leaves.

To read the signal, the researchers shine a laser onto the leaf, prompting the embedded nanotubes to emit near-infrared fluorescent light.

This can be detected with a small infrared camera connected to a small, cheap Raspberry Pi computer. The signal can also be detected with a smartphone by removing the infrared filter most have.

Bask in the glow

Co-author Prof Michael Strano, from MIT in Cambridge, US, said the work was an important proof of principle.

"Our paper outlines how one could engineer plants like this to detect virtually anything," he told the BBC News website.

Prof Strano's lab has previously developed carbon nanotubes __that can be used as sensors to detect hydrogen peroxide, TNT, and the nerve gas sarin.

When the target molecule binds to a polymer material wrapped around the nanotube, it changes the way it glows.

"The plants could be use for defence applications, but also to monitor public spaces for terrorism related activities, since we show both water and airborne detection," said Prof Strano.

"Such plants could be used to monitor groundwater seepage from buried munitions or waste __that contains nitro-aromatics."

Using the set-up described in the paper, the researchers can pick up a signal from about 1m away from the plant, and they are now working on increasing that distance.

Follow Paul on Twitter.

Technology

Tesla shows off solar roof tiles

Tesla solar roof in Los Angeles in Los Angeles, 28 October 2016 Image copyright Reuters
Image caption The new tiles look better than existing solar roofs, Tesla says

Roof tiles with built-in solar panels have been unveiled by Tesla chief executive Elon Musk.

The tiles, made from glass, are intended to be a more attractive way to add solar panels to homes, compared with currently-used solar technology.

The launch took place in Universal Studios, Los Angeles, on what used to be the set for the television show Desperate Housewives.

It comes with Tesla due to take over struggling energy firm Solar City.

Some of the electric carmaker's investors have expressed concern over the takeover, suggesting it is a Tesla-funded bail-out of a company Mr Musk has a vested interest in as its biggest shareholder.

Solar City’s chief executive is Mr Musk’s cousin.

Image copyright Reuters
Image caption The product was showcased on houses which once served as the set for Desperate Housewives

Bringing the solar tiles to the Desperate Housewives set was a way of displaying the idea’s key selling point: it looks far better than solar panelling. Mr Musk jokingly described it as a “sweet roof!”.

No price was given for the tiles, which come in a variety of colours and styles, though Mr Musk did say it would be cheaper than fitting a traditional roof and then adding solar on top.

Also part of the launch was Powerwall 2, Tesla’s home battery product. The primary function of the Powerwall is to store any surplus energy from the solar panels. It will cost $5,500 (£4,511), Mr Musk said.

Tesla posted a surprise profit in its last quarterly earnings - its first in three years.

The $2.6bn acquisition of Solar City seems set to see the company plunge back into the red, but Mr Musk insisted on Friday __that the deal made sense as having separate companies would “slow things down”.

Tesla shareholders vote on the acquisition on 17 November.

Image copyright Tesla
Image caption What a house fitted with Tesla's solar roof tiles may look like

Follow Dave Lee on Twitter @DaveLeeBBC and on Facebook

There's No Need To Fear Gene-Edited Food

Not since Alice in Wonderland’s hookah-smoking caterpillar doled out his weird wisdom atop a ­psychedelic-looking mushroom has the lowly fungus so upstaged the action. At most dinner tables, mushrooms are ancillary characters. But this past spring, the food and agriculture worlds became obsessed with one mushroom in particular: Agaricus bisporus, known as the white button mushroom—that all-purpose fungus you jam by the fistful into a plastic bag at the market and abandon in the fridge, only to find it slimy and brown several days later. Science has now found a way to delay __that browning, using the buzzy genome-editing tool CRISPR, which can trigger changes in the DNA of plants, humans, and other animals with unprecedented precision and speed.

The name—Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats—refers to a system __that targets genetic code. The makers of the nonbrowning mushroom, at Pennsylvania State University, used the CRISPR enzyme Cas9, which can delete base pairs, changing a gene and altering its expression.

But that’s not the part that got people talking. In April, the U.S. Department of Agriculture said that it would not regulate the CRISPR-altered mushroom. To organic purists and eco-watchdogs, a genetically modified organism (GMO) had been given a green light to go to market without oversight: no warnings about what was in our food and no investigations into its environmental impact.

The outcry from food warriors was swift: How had a genetically tweaked food evaded regulation?

It hadn’t, exactly. “The USDA simply decided that, legally, the mushroom didn’t fall within their regulatory system,” says Greg Jaffe, the biotechnology director at the Center for Science in the Public Interest.

The USDA regulates genetically modified (GM) plants only for their potential to be “plant pests”—whether they can infect other crops. If there’s that chance, it can require further testing and a permit before the crop is planted. A handful of modified GM plants have previously managed to escape regulation for various reasons. But the CRISPR process itself is what helped push the mushroom past the red tape. While most GM crops use bacteria or viruses to introduce new genes into a plant, CRISPR needed only a few snips to the genetic code. Since the CRISPR’ed mushroom contained no plant-pest DNA, the USDA decided it was out of their hands. (The Food and Drug Administration still may weigh in before the ’shroom goes to market.)

Still, consumers are wary. Ever since federal regulators approved GM seed crops 20 years ago, we’ve been a nation torn—and often misinformed—over so-called Frankenfoods. The organic-food lobby and environmentalists vigilantly warn us about potentially harmful side effects to our health and to the ­planet. The issue has created a hothouse split between ­science and the public. A 2015 Pew Research survey found that more than 57 percent of Americans believe GMOs are “generally unsafe.” Meanwhile, 88 percent of scientists surveyed say they are “generally safe.”

The biggest mistake we can make, as a curious and concerned public, is to vilify CRISPR and the food it makes. We should instead push for informed, science-based evaluation.

But we’ve come a long way since the early days of GMO projects, when herbicide-resistant crops led to “superweeds” immune to chemical treatment. Such stories make us justifiably wary of playing God with our food. But nearly everything we eat is genetically modified. (See freshman biology: Gregor Mendel). The real superweeds today have grown up around, and are choking, our legal-approval apparatus. Oversight has become part of the problem; our biotech regulatory framework is outdated and ill-equipped to deal with rapidly evolving tech. (The White House has promised to change that.)

The biggest mistake we can make, as a curious and concerned public, is to prematurely vilify CRISPR and the food it makes. We should instead push for ­informed, science-based evaluation. It could help improve the global food supply. The whole reason for a tweaked mushroom is that it resists bruising during harvest and browning in your fridge. That means you’re more likely to eat it instead of tossing it—no small success in a country where 40 percent of food ends up in a landfill. And CRISPR itself opens up a new world of food development, since it’s cheap and easy to use, making it accessible to smaller labs and breaking Big Ag’s GMO monopoly.

So let’s not stall this science at a time when better, hardier, more efficiently grown food is a rising need. Gene editing requires funding and research—but it also requires public support to make it viable. There is great potential for smaller companies to make food that can nourish a growing population without harming the planet. Traditional bioengineering has a very high bar for entry. CRISPR lowers it: It democratizes the technology so engineered plants are not just the domain of a handful of huge companies making feed crops, but can be done by one guy in a university lab with a great idea.

This article was originally published in the November/December 2016 issue of Popular Science, under the title “Do Not Fear Gene-Edited Food.”

A Shattered Mars Lander, An Iridescent Leaf, And More

Could the smell of the sea help cool a warming planet?

Waves and spray Image copyright Eyewire
Image caption Tiny bubbles get lofted into the air by the churn of the sea

Ah, the summertime sizzle of a shell-strewn beach, the bracing odour of the briny sea. There's nothing quite like it really.

If you happen to be on a beautiful beach, do take a good, deep, invigorating sniff!

What does it remind you of?

Amid the saltiness, a hint of sulphur perhaps?

A slight edge of boiled cabbage? Or something even more unpleasant?

Well, maybe that's just me...

Seaside odours are generally composed of dimethyl sulfide, a pongy gas produced by bacteria feasting on phytoplankton.

In the atmosphere, it is changed chemically to sulphate, which in turn becomes the seeds of clouds.

Solid organic matter from large collections of phytoplankton blooms can also help with cloud formation.

This blooming ocean can give rise to a specky scum, from which tiny bubbles get lofted into the air by the churn of the sea.

Water vapour condenses around them, tiny droplets form and the fluffy billows of the sky emerge.

Gobsmacked

So what does this ocean-coloured scene have to do with a warming planet?

Well, researchers say __that the type of clouds produced from sea gas and plankton particles, especially in the Southern Ocean, are not your common or garden cumulus.

Image copyright SPL
Image caption Scientists were surprised to discover __that clouds in the Southern Ocean were highly reflective in summer

Clouds reflect sunlight back into space depending on the size of the droplets and the amount of liquid suspended in them.

The more liquid that is suspended in the cloud, the brighter and more reflective they are - swotty philosophers of the skies!

The experts have long understood that in winter, when seas are stormy and the spray is flying, there will be more of these types of droplets and thus more sun bounced back into space.

In the balmy, calm of summer at sea they expected the clouds to be far less reflective.

They were astonished to discover that, in the Southern Ocean, this was not the case at all.

In fact they concluded that the plankton particle effect was strongest in the warmer months - on average they found that ocean life doubled the number of droplets in summer.

"The amount of sunlight that's reflected by those clouds in this region is about 125 watts per metre squared," said co-author Dr Susannah Burrows, from the US Department of Energy's Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.

"What we're finding is evidence for a change in that reflectivity of 10 watts per metre squared, that would be attributed to the phytoplankton - so about 8% of the reflection of sunlight on those clouds."

"It is quite a bit!" she said.

Brightening the clouds

So can this new understanding of the role of sea smells and clouds make a difference to global warming?

Well, yes, say the researchers but not necessarily in the ways you might think.

The scientists are excited about the findings because for the first time it gives them a clue about the total number of aerosols that are up in the air over the Southern Ocean.

But could this new understanding give a boost to ideas about geo-engineering our way out of warming hell?

Image copyright SPL
Image caption Scientists have been studying the ability of clouds to reflect sunlight back into space

In recent years a number of researchers have suggested that brightening the clouds could be a low-impact way of cooling the planet.

Does this Southern Ocean research make this a more feasible prospect?

"In principle it is possible to strongly modify and brighten marine clouds by injecting particles into the marine atmosphere," says Dr Burrows.

"But I think whether or not that's a good idea is really a political question that needs to be discussed within society."

Something to mull over while lying on the beach with the sea air in your nostrils.

Follow Matt on Twitter @mattmcgrathbbc.

Lewis Pugh: Swimmer has Ross Sea talks with Russia

Lewis Pugh Image copyright Kelvin Trautman
Image caption Lewis Pugh has made long-distance swims in every ocean of the world

After completing some record-breaking swims in Antarctica, Lewis Pugh flew to Moscow to discuss ocean conservation.

The UK athlete and campaigner wanted to meet the Russian Minster of Defence to discuss the creation of a new marine reserve around the Ross Sea.

Sergey Shoygu is also the president of the Russian Geographical Society.

Despite international tensions, Mr Pugh believes __that their conversation could help the world to reach an agreement on the proposed protected zone.

The Ross Sea covers __that slice of Antarctica claimed by New Zealand, and from which teams associated with Scott, Shackleton and Amundsen all mounted polar forays.

The sea is one of the last regions in Earth's oceans still regarded as near-pristine and unaffected by human activities. But there is deadlock over giving it a special designation.

Speaking of his Russian encounter, Mr Pugh told the BBC: "This is the first time that Antarctica has been discussed at this level.

"Until now, it hasn't got this far. They indicated that there is an appetite for dialogue and for peace.

"When you take off your clothes, there are no barriers. You can talk person to person."

Image copyright Kelvin Trautman

However, Mr Pugh, who is the UN Environment Programme Patron of the Oceans, warned that it would be a lengthy process, particularly given the international disagreements over Ukraine.

"The relationship between the US and Russia and the United Kingdom and Russia is very strained. This is the most serious crisis that these parties have faced since the Cold War. There are no bilaterals happening at this stage."

As part of a series of Antarctic swims, this month Mr Pugh swam further south than anyone has swum before. Breaking his own record, he said that the Bay of Whales in the Ross Sea was "the most terrifying place" that he had ever swum. The average sea temperature was -1C , with an air temperature of -37C.

The Ross Sea Marine Protected Area (MPA) has been discussed for the last four years and it has failed four times. The last proposal was vetoed by Russia and China.

It would be the size of the UK, Germany and France put together, and needs 24 countries and the EU all to agree.

Mr Pugh said: "If you look at the 1959 Antarctic Treaty, this was concluded at the height of cold war. All of the parties set aside land, the continent, as a place of peace and science.

"I hope that Antarctica could be used as a bridge, as a place where we could try to find common ground. My hope is that this would ripple northwards."

Image copyright Kelvin Trautman

World's largest marine protected area declared in Antarctica

Penguin Image copyright John B. Weller
Image caption Conservationists are delighted __that the Ross Sea has been designated a marine protected area

Delegates from 24 countries and the European Union have agreed __that the Ross Sea in Antarctica will become the world's largest marine protected area (MPA).

Some 1.57m sq km (600,000 sq miles) of the Southern Ocean will gain protection from commercial fishing for 35 years.

Environmentalists have welcomed the move to protect what's said to be the Earth's most pristine marine ecosystem.

They hope it will be the first of many such zones in international waters.

At this meeting in Hobart, Australia, the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) agreed unanimously to designate the Ross Sea as an MPA, after years of protracted negotiations, New Zealand Foreign Minister Murray McCully announced.

The Ross Sea, its shelf and slope only comprise 2% of the Southern Ocean but they are home to 38% of the world's Adelie penguins, 30% of the world's Antarctic petrels and around 6% of the world's population of Antarctic minke whales.

  • Should tourists be banned from Antarctica?
  • Swimming for Antarctic ocean conservation
  • How the smell of the sea could help cool the earth

The region is important to the rest of the planet as the upwelling of nutrients from the deep waters are carried on currents around the world.

The Ross Sea is also home to huge numbers of krill, a staple food for species including whales and seals. Their oil is critical for salmon farming. However there are concerns that overfishing and climate change are having significant impacts on their numbers.

Image copyright John B. Weller
Image caption Scientists say that the Ross Sea has hardly been touched by humans and as such is a perfect laboratory

The proposal, introduced by New Zealand and the US, and accepted by all the other nations, will see a general protection "no-take" zone where nothing can be removed including marine life and minerals.

As part of the compromise that emerged in negotiations, there will be special zones where fishing from krill and toothfish will be allowed for research purposes.

Speedo diplomacy

"I'm absolutely overjoyed," said Lewis Pugh, the UN Patron for the Oceans, and someone who has campaigned for years in support of this new MPA.

"This is the biggest protected area on the land or the sea, this is the first large scale MPA on the high seas, they are largely unprotected."

The ocean advocate and swimmer drew attention to the Ross Sea with a series of swims in the icy waters - and for two years he has engaged in a series of meetings, dubbed "speedo diplomacy" with Russian officials to convince them of the value of the MPA.

Image copyright Kelvin Trautman
Image caption UN oceans patron, Lewis Pugh, engaged in "speedo diplomacy" to push for a deal

At the end of negotiations last year, Russia was the one country holding out against a consensus on the Ross Sea. But this year there has been what Mr Pugh describes as an "environmental glasnost".

Russia's President Vladimir Putin has designated 2017 as the Year of Ecology and the country has recently expanded an MPA around Franz Josef Land in the Arctic.

Sergei Ivanov, President Putin's Special Representative for Ecology, welcomed the new deal.

"Russia has a proud history of exploration and science in Antarctica. In this time of political turbulence in so many parts of the world, we are pleased to be part of this collaborative international effort to safeguard the Ross Sea," he said.

One of the key questions in the negotiations was how long the MPA should last. China is on the record as stating it believes that 20 years is long enough for a designation.

Many conservationists say this is far too short, given the lifespan of creatures that life in the Ross Sea, such as whales.

Ultimately, the parties agreed on 35 years.

The designation was welcomed not just by campaigners but also by those with close links to the Ross Sea.

"The Ross family are euphoric that our family legacy has been honoured in the 175th anniversary year since James first discovered the Ross Sea," said Phillipa Ross, great, great, great granddaughter to Sir James Clark Ross, after whom the Ross Sea is named.

Image copyright PEW
Image caption Some countries are concerned that a marine protected area in the high seas around Antarctica would set a precedent for the rest of the world

One of the other big concerns that delayed the proposal was the fact that it could set a precedent for other high seas negotiations around the world, such as in the Arctic and in attempts by the UN to develop a new marine biodiversity treaty.

Lewis Pugh is very hopeful that this will be the case. And he's willing to keep swimming until it happens.

"This to me represents a first step, I am heading back down to the Antarctic peninsula to carry on swimming, I want to see a series of MPAs around this continent that I feel so much about," he explained.

"For me this is an issue about justice - justice between generations. There seems to be something fundamentally wrong with us destroying our oceans so our children and grandchildren have absolutely nothing."

Image copyright Alamy
Image caption Fishing will be prohibited in much of the dark blue regions although some will be allowed for research purposes

Follow Matt on Twitter @mattmcgrathBBC and on Facebook.

The Wall of Storms

In creating the silkpunk world of his novels, sci-fi author Ken Liu envisioned entirely new approaches to energy and technology. Winner of both the Hugo and Nebula prizes, Liu recently shared his insights on creativity and energy tech in an interview with Nexus Media. Below, you can read an excerpt from his most recent novel, The Wall of Storms.

They worked at a lab located inside a giant coastal cave. This facility was the brainchild of the head of the Imperial laboratories, Kita Thu, one of the Haan pana méji who had participated in the Palace Examination alongside Zomi Kidosu years ago. Though he had not wanted this post at the time, the instinct of the emperor and Consort Risana turned out to be correct, and over the years, Kita had grown into an able leader of scholars who was skilled at fulfilling unusual needs.

He secreted the carcasses away inside the cave as soon as they arrived and set up a system of wagons to keep them packed with ice to prevent corruption, paying the expenses out of his family’s wealth even before he had Imperial funding. To most of the merchants and drivers who supplied the laboratory’s needs, the facility was presented as some kind of Imperial warehouse intended to preserve seafood __that could be consumed in the off-season. As the weather warmed, the wagons had to go as far as the glaciers of the Damu Mountains to harvest the ice, and the laboratory’s expenses ballooned.

It was imperative __that they learn what they could from the carcasses as soon as possible.

With the new war-bond funding from Pan, Kita redoubled his efforts. He expanded the cave and divided it into multiple dissection rooms so that pieces of the carcass could be studied in parallel. A system of carefully drilled holes and mirrors directed filtered sunlight to illuminate the interior of the cave, and he designed a concave frame with numerous refracting glass lenses to be placed over the dissection tables so that no shadows would block the view of the operating surgeon or dissector. To cut through the tough skin, muscle, and tendons of the giant beasts, he commissioned diamond-tipped scalpels to ensure the cuts would be smooth during the dissection process and avoid damaging the tissues needlessly with hacking and sawing. He set up several windmills on top of the cliffs above the cave, from where a series of gears and belts transferred the power down into the lab, where they operated heavy machines for lifting and moving the carcass around. Since the entire space was maintained at near-freezing temperature, everyone working inside had to dress as though it was deep winter. Except for scholars and workmen approved to work on the project, no one was allowed anywhere near the hidden laboratory: Lyucu spies and sympathizers might well attempt to sabotage the work being done here, and whatever revelations they might learn would be military secrets.

At first, the various experts were skeptical of the presence of Théra. Most thought the tales of her contributions to the suppression of the rebellion in Tunoa exaggerated, an instance of Imperial mythmaking, and more than a few grumbled that she was nothing more than a spoiled princess inserting herself among learned men to seek thrills or some sense of relevance.

It didn’t help matters that Théra almost immediately insisted on the addition of two other scholars who had not been on the list of approved researchers drawn up by a select committee of the Imperial Academy Council. Çami Phithadapu was a young woman scholar from Rui who had barely placed among the firoa in the Imperial examinations the previous year, and Mécodé Zégate was a woman cashima of Haan ancestry who had grown up in Tunoa.

Both had been beneficiaries of Kuni Garu’s Golden Carp Program, though even Théra didn’t know that.

“Why these two in particular?” Kita Thu asked, frowning.

“Kita, you have almost no women among the researchers.”

“That’s because there are no qualified women candidates.” Kita paused, wondering if this could be construed as an insult to the princess. He tried to be ingratiating. “Your Highness is an exception, of course, as is special adviser Zomi Kidosu.”

“Although there are not nearly as many women who have passed the Imperial examinations as men, there are some,” said Théra. “Also, since this project requires us to make novel discoveries, it’s important to have a broad spectrum of opinions and views.”

“Originality of thinking is a quality of the mind, not of sex,” scoffed Kita Thu.

Théra persisted. “Because of their different life experiences, women may well provide fresh insights not available from traditional candidates. Unique among the examinees, Çami used her essay last year to discuss evidence of midwifery being practiced by whales, and Mécodé is well known as an expert on the history of herbal lore derived from animals’ attempts at curing their own illnesses. Their interest in these traditionally neglected subjects show originality of thinking.”

Kita wasn’t convinced, but he relented and added the two women to the staff.

Aware of the skepticism directed at her, Théra chose to ignore the climate of mild hostility and threw herself into the work. She labored alongside the other scholars: climbing over the gigantic carcasses with rough cables and sharp hooks, never complaining about the danger; lifting and shifting massive limbs and cutting body parts without showing any sign that such physical labor was beneath her; plunging her arms deep into the blood and fat without concern until her face was spattered with gore and her body steeped in the stench of garinafin viscera. She listened to the talk of the scholars with care, and did not interrupt the discussions with her opinions.

She acted less like a princess of Dara and more like one of the apprentices or students of the scholars.

“Why do you never say anything?” asked Zomi when the two of them were by themselves. “I know you want to contribute.”

Théra smiled at her. “Do you recall the legend of the Phaédo bird?”

“As told by Ra Oji?

*In Damu the scarlet Phaédo sits,

For three years, snowbound, all sounds he omits.

Then, one morn he sings to call forth the sun.

Stunned, the world stands still to listen as one.”*

Théra nodded. “There is a time to assert your opinion, and a time to play the dutiful student. Timing is everything, in war as well as in debate — especially when one is seen as an outsider.”

Zomi sighed. Théra seemed to have a far better grasp of the flow of currents of power than she did — a weakness that Luan had warned her about years ago.

Worried about Théra’s health, Zomi devised a silk mask for her so that she wouldn’t get sick from the garinafin gore that splashed onto her face and the fumes from the medicinal water in which they preserved detached garinafin organs. Théra was delighted, and a warmth suffused Zomi’s heart as she watched the grateful princess.

“Would you mind if I asked the craftsmen to make these for everyone?” Théra asked, holding Zomi by the hand.

Zomi’s face flushed. She berated herself for not thinking through how it would look if only the princess had special equipment. She concentrated on the sensation of the princess’s fingers against her palm — they were rough from wielding heavy tools against tough garinafin skin, but Zomi thought they were lovely and smooth beyond measure. She nodded.

“I’ll embroider some zomi berries on this one so that no one will mistake it for theirs,” said Théra. “It’s special; you made it.”

For hours afterward Zomi caressed her own palm, trying to re-create the warmth of Théra’s hand. In contrast to the guarded reception given Princess Théra, Zomi Kidosu had everyone’s respect from the get-go as the foremost pana méji inthe Imperial examination from two sessions ago. She soon established herself as one of the leading experts on the garinafins, as she had read Luan Zyaji’s accounts many times, and her own detailed notes from observing the creatures in action in Rui proved invaluable in connecting the anatomical features of the garinafins with their behavior.

Working side by side at a joint task brought Zomi and Théra even closer. As they navigated and climbed around a mountainous maze made of garinafin guts, they kept up a constant stream of chatter and laughter, as though they were strolling through a lovely garden and commenting upon the exotic flowers.

With the best minds of Dara at work, the scholars huddled inside the ice cave on the coast of Haan made steady progress toward their first goal: understanding the mystery of the garinafin’s fire breath, an ability that had no equivalent in the fauna of Dara.

Once they cut through the skin and muscle of the garinafins, the scholars found a network of membranous sacs that filled the body cavity.

“These must be similar to the sacs inside the torso of the Mingén falcons,” reasoned Atharo Ye, a noted Patternist scholar of Rui who had served in the court of Emperor Mapidéré as one of the Xana Empire’s airship engineers. He was a descendant of the great engineer Kino Ye, who had committed sacrilege to dissect the Mingén falcons and learned the secret of the lift gas that powered the flight of the great raptors. From time to time, Atharo enjoyed puffing on a coral pipe stuffed with rich tobacco from Faça, and though the smoke lingered in the ice cave, none of the other scholars dared to object given his prominence.

“Even with hollow and light bones, as well as gigantic wings, it appears that these creatures still need the assistance of such sacs for flight,” Atharo continued.

“But that means that they are as dependent on the lift gas as our airships,” said an excited Çami Phithadapu, who made it a point to speak up and not let herself be intimidated by so many well-known scholars around her — a habit that irritated many of the older, established scholars. “If we can cut off their supply, the garinafins will eventually become earthbound.”

Zomi shook her head. “I’m not convinced. I don’t recall the Lyucu sending the beasts to Lake Dako to replenish their supply of lift gas. And there was no mention of a supply of lift gas in Master Zyaji’s accounts of the lands of Ukyu and Gondé. Such an important feature surely would have drawn his interest.”

“It’s possible that the lift gas is far more plentiful in their land than ours, such that the Lyucu did not treat it as a rare resource or make note of it,” said Atharo.

“But how were they able to sustain the supply of lift gas for so long on their voyage across the ocean?” asked Çami.

Atharo dismissed this objection with an impatient wave of his hand.

“Our airships leak gas but slowly, and with careful maintenance and pooling the lift gas supply between ships, we can fly them for years before needing to refill.”

“But the garinafins don’t seem to be able to maintain flight for long,” said Zomi. “All the evidence shows that they can fly for but a few hours at a time before needing to land. If they are reliant on stored lift gas, one would expect them to be able to stay aloft indefinitely.”

“Hmm . . .” Atharo Ye had to admit that this was a rather good point. “Let me examine these sacs some more.”

He located one of the sacs that was still full of gas and carefully severed it from the attached blood vessels, air tubes, and other tissue. Then he tied off the small tubes with a length of string, and, holding on to the string, let the sac go.

The sac, almost three feet across, rose into the air, pulling the string taut.

“Lighter than air, as suspected,” said Atharo.

Next, he took a sharpened hollow reed and stuck it into the sac. The gas hissed out of the tube.

“Master Ye,” Princess Théra interrupted. Since she rarely spoke, everyone turned to look at her. “I think it prudent to be cautious with an unknown gas. Perhaps it’s best to use one of the smaller dissection — ”

Atharo Ye waved at her impatiently. “I’ve been working with lift gas since before you were even an idea in the minds of your parents. I know very well what is safe and what is not.” He closed his eyes and took a deep whiff of the escaping gas. “There’s no smell at all. Pure lift gas.”

He let the sac float over his head like a balloon, the hissing jet of gas from the still-leaking reed propelling it in circles like an airship. Then he took out his coral pipe filled with cured tobacco and gestured for one of the errand boys standing around to bring over a light for his pipe. Since the inside of the cave had to be kept chilled and illumination was provided by refracted and reflected sunlight, there was no lit torch or lamp around the lab. The boy had to run outside the cave and bring back a lit stick.

And just like that, the balloon over his head exploded into a fireball. As the boy yelped and jumped out of the way, the other scholars dove for cover. The fireball fell onto Atharo’s head and set his hair and clothes on fire. Atharo screamed and stumbled around, bumping into the dissection table. There was no ready source of water nearby. He was going to be severely injured by the fire.

The other scholars and guards were stunned and stood around helplessly.

“Your Highness!” Mécodé Zégate, the herbalist from Tunoa, ran up to Princess Théra. “Can I have your robe?”

Théra understood at once. “Good idea!” Without hesitation, she tore off the voluminous winter robe she was wearing, and, with Mécodé’s and Çami’s help, covered Atharo Ye’s flaming head and shoulders before pushing him to the ground. They rolled him along the ground until they were certain the flames had been extinguished.

Atharo sat up and slowly and removed Théra’s robe from his head like the veil of a bride. The fire had singed off his beard and much of his hair, but the injury to his face and neck was relatively light.

“You’ll be fine with an ointment of ice lilies and winter jelly,” said Mécodé after examining him. “It will sting terribly for a few days, though.”

“Thank you,” he said, looking at Théra, Çami, and Mécodé gratefully.

Meanwhile, Zomi calmly issued orders to everyone in the cave.“Get those doors open to let in some fresh air! Don’t cut open any more sacs from the garinafins, and make sure to never bring any fire in here.”

At another time, the sight of three women — one of them a princess in her undergarments — rolling an elder like a log on the ground might have generated itters or gossip, but everyone in the cave understood what a brave thing Théra, Çami, and Mécodé had done.

Kidosu started to clap, and everyone else soon joined in, filling the cave with loud peals of applause.

“You have certainly taught me a lesson,” said an embarrassed Atharo. “Just goes to show you that living for many years does not necessarily gain you any wisdom. How were you able to remain so calm and know what to do?”

Mécodé laughed. “Being from a poor family where I cooked for the whole household, I imagine I’ve spent many more hours in the kitchen than the rest of you put together. A skirt catching fire in the kitchen is a common accident, and I learned to deal with it. I imagine Çami had similar experiences.”

Çami nodded. “I might have been a good student, but I was still expected to cook for my brothers and parents.”

Atharo turned to Théra. “I can’t imagine you learned this technique from the kitchen, however.”

Théra grinned. “Not quite. When my father was a young man, his friend, Farsight Secretary Coda, was caught in a firebomb attack. My father had to figure out how to put out such a fire by separating the flames from air to save his friend. The story made quite an impression on me, and so I was able to put it into practice without much thought.”

Atharo nodded. “Thank the gods you are here.”

From then on, the scholars treated Théra, Çami, and Mécodé as full-fledged members of the team. When they offered opinions or observations, the others listened.

© 2016 Ken Liu, reprinted with permission from Saga Press

This story is made available by Nexus Media, a syndicated newswire covering climate, energy, policy, art and culture.

Watch The Best Science Vines One Last Time

Twitter threw us all for a loop today when it announced it was shutting down its video sharing service Vine, about four years after it launched. The mobile app became popular for its short, 6-second clips, which were capable of being made with very little editing. Although users will be able to download all the videos they created, and the Vine website will stay online, the mobile app used to make Vines will be discontinued. We'll miss seeing all the explosions and cool science demonstrations. So we've compiled a list of our favorite science vines, from vinegar volcanoes to outer space. RIP.

1) Zero Gravity

Zero gravity

2) A Light Bulb Powered By Potatoes

light bulb powered by a potato

3) A Vinegar Volcano

Vinegar volcano

4) How Dogs Drink Water

How dogs drink water

5) How The Brain Makes Memories

How the brain makes memories

6) Photosynthesis

photosynthesis

7) Bending Water With Static Electricity

Bending water with static electricity

8) A Seahorse Giving Birth

How seahorses give birth

9) Paper Towel Osmosis

Paper towel osmosis

10) Underwater Gunshot

Underwater gun

11) Metal Ion Flames

Metal ion flames

12) Refraction Of Light

Refraction of light using water

13) An Ant Drinking Water

How ants drink

14) Dry Ice

Dry ice

15) The View From The International Space Station

The view from the International Space Station

16) How Sound Waves Travel

How sound waves travel

17) Liquid Nitrogen Explosion

liquid nitrogen explosion

18) Coral Growing

Coral growing

19) Acoustic Levitation

Acoustic levitation

20) An Alcohol Rocket

Alcohol rocket

Images reveal crashed Mars lander

Mars Image copyright NASA

The European Space Agency has tried hard to avoid using the words "crash" or "failure" about its attempted Mars landing but the fate of the spacecraft is cruelly exposed in new pictures.

The Schiaparelli lander is seen in greater detail than ever before, lying on the Martian surface.

It is well within its intended landing zone but obviously unable to function.

The images, gathered by Nasa, could provide important new clues about what went wrong.

They show a dark patch around the capsule - a possible hint __that a fuel tank exploded - and the indication is __that the impact gouged out a crater 50cm deep.

Last week's landing - a joint Esa-Russian Space Agency (Roscosmos) endeavour - was billed as a "technology demonstrator" to pave the way for a far bigger venture in 2020 with a sophisticated rover to hunt for clues about life.

The loss raises difficult questions about the risks involved in that follow-on mission and whether Esa's member governments will be too nervous to pledge the funds needed to mount it.

The Schiaparelli spacecraft was meant to touch down last week using a combination of a heat-shield and a parachute to slow its fall and retro-rockets to lower it to the surface.

Image copyright NASA
Image caption The new photos put the fate of the lander beyond doubt

Instead communications were lost during what should have been the final minute of the descent and it is estimated that the spacecraft hit the ground at about 300kph.

It was quickly established that the parachute and back cover were released earlier than they should have been, according to a pre-programmed sequence of tasks.

It is also known that the retro-rockets, which should have fired for 30 seconds, only operated for three or four seconds, and the lander probably fell from a height of 2-4km.

In the aftermath of the attempt, Esa's Director-General, Jan Woerner, claimed that the mission was a success because the spacecraft transmitted data for five of the six minutes of its descent, providing useful information and proving that key stages of the operation had worked well.

Media captionSchiaparelli's landing sequence - stage by stage

He also highlighted that the lander's mother ship, known as the Trace Gas Orbiter, had been successfully placed in an orbit that would allow it to sniff the Martian atmosphere for hints of methane.

Soon after the mission, Nasa's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter gathered pictures of the landing zone which revealed the presence of two new dots in the Martian landscape - a dark one for the spacecraft and a white one for the parachute.

Now the same spacecraft has used its more powerful HiRise camera - with a resolution of 30cm per pixel - to focus on the landing zone and produce the images released today.

In a bitter irony, it was the same US orbiter that managed to spot Europe's earlier attempt at a Mars landing, with the Beagle-2 mission in 2003.

Those images showed how the tiny craft had made it to the surface in one piece but then failed to fully open its solar panels which meant that it could not communicate or survive.

World wildlife 'falls by 58% in 40 years'

Eurasian lynx Image copyright Roger Leguen / WWF
Image caption This report estimates __that wildlife populations have declined by nearly 60% since 1970

Global wildlife populations have fallen by 58% since 1970, a report says.

The Living Planet assessment, by the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) and WWF, suggests __that if the trend continues that decline could reach two-thirds among vertebrates by 2020.

The figures suggest that animals living in lakes, rivers and wetlands are suffering the biggest losses.

Human activity, including habitat loss, wildlife trade, pollution and climate change, is attributed to the declines.

Dr Mike Barrett. head of science and policy at WWF, said: "It's pretty clear under 'business as usual' we will see continued declines in these wildlife populations. But I think now we've reached a point where there isn't really any excuse to let this carry on.

"We know what the causes are and we know the scale of the impact that humans are having on nature and on wildlife populations - it really is now down to us to act."

However the methodology of the report has been criticised.

Image copyright Carlos Drews / WWF
Image caption The report looked at data collected on 3,700 species of vertebrates over the last 40 years

The Living Planet Report is published every two years and aims to provide an assessment of the state of the world's wildlife.

For freshwater species alone, the decline stands at 81% since 1970
Dr Mike Barrett, WWF

This analysis looked at data collected on 3,700 different species of birds, fish, mammals, amphibians and reptiles - about 6% of the total number of vertebrate species in the world.

The researchers then analysed how the population sizes had changed over time since 1970.

The last report, published in 2014, estimated that the world's wildlife populations had halved over the last 40 years.

This assessment suggests that the trend has continued: since 1970, populations have declined by an average of 58%.

Dr Barrett said some groups of animals had fared worse than others.

"We do see particularly strong declines in the freshwater environment - for freshwater species alone, the decline stands at 81% since 1970. This is related to the way water is used and taken out of fresh water systems, and also the fragmentation of freshwater systems through dam building, for example."

Image copyright WWF
Image caption African elephants numbers have fallen dramatically as poaching has increased

It also highlighted other species, such as African elephants , which have suffered huge declines in recent years with the increase in poaching, and sharks, which are threatened by overfishing.

If pressures - overexploitation, illegal wildlife trade for example - increase or worsen, then that trend may be worse
Dr Robin Freeman, ZSL

The researchers conclude that vertebrate populations are declining by an average of 2% each year, and warn that if nothing is done, wildlife populations could fall by 67% (below 1970 levels) by the end of the decade.

Dr Robin Freeman, head of ZSL's Indicators & Assessments Unit, said: "But that's assuming things continue as we expect. If pressures - overexploitation, illegal wildlife trade, for example - increase or worsen, then that trend may be worse.

"But one of the things I think is most important about these stats, these trends are declines in the number of animals in wildlife populations - they are not extinctions. By and large they are not vanishing, and that presents us with an opportunity to do something about it."

Image copyright Scott Dickerson
Image caption There are still many gaps in our knowledge of the world's vertebrates

However, Living Planet reports have drawn some criticisms.

There are some numbers [in the report] that are sensible, but there are some numbers that are very very sketchy
Stuart Pimm, Duke University

Stuart Pimm, professor of conservation ecology at Duke University in the United States, said that while wildlife was in decline, there were too many gaps in the data to boil population loss down to a single figure.

"There are some numbers [in the report] that are sensible, but there are some numbers that are very, very sketchy," he told BBC News.

"For example, if you look at where the data comes from, not surprisingly, it is massively skewed towards western Europe.

"When you go elsewhere, not only do the data become far fewer, but in practice they become much, much sketchier... there is almost nothing from South America, from tropical Africa, there is not much from the tropics, period. Any time you are trying to mix stuff like that, it is is very very hard to know what the numbers mean.

"They're trying to pull this stuff in a blender and spew out a single number.... It's flawed."

But Dr Freeman said the team had taken the best data possible from around the world.

"It's completely true that in some regions and in some groups, like tropical amphibians for example, we do have a lack of data. But that's because there is a lack of data.

"We're confident that the method we are using is the best method to present an overall estimate of population decline.

"It's entirely possible that species that aren't being monitored as effectively may be doing much worse - but I'd be very surprised if they were doing much better than we observed. "

Follow Rebecca on Twitter: @BBCMorelle

When Things Go Wrong In The Kitchen

Cooking isn’t rocket science -- it’s way more complicated. Rockets don’t ripen on the way to the moon.

Before you turn on a burner or pick up a knife, your food is already in flux: sugar levels are ebbing and flowing in fruits and vegetables, protein scaffolding is disintegrating in cheese and meat, and oxygen is wreaking havoc on everything from the aroma of olive oil to the color of avocados.

There is no Waze to map the shifting traffic of emulsified droplets in your hollandaise, so even the best chefs in the world are flying blind. No one is immune to mistakes in the kitchen, but by categorizing the unexpected, we can quicken our reflexes to respond more fluidly when a recipe goes sideways. From the smallest hiccup to the biggest disaster, the solutions to any culinary misstep fall into one of three categories: do-overs, workarounds, and pivots.

All kitchen mistakes stem from unwanted transformations of the microscopic building blocks within our food. Most of those changes can never be undone, but some are reversible.

Reversible processes give us the rare opportunity for a do-over when something goes wrong. Just as gold can be melted and recast, gritty ice cream can be melted and refrozen, dull chocolate can be retempered, and oily sauces can be re-emulsified. In these cases, physics has a short memory, allowing us to wipe the slate clean.

We can even fix the same mistake multiple times—some restaurants refreeze their ice cream twice a night to keep it as smooth as possible. Unlimited do-overs in the kitchen are rare, however, because we almost never work with a pure substance. We could whisk stray oil droplets back into broken hollandaise forever, if it didn’t also contain delicate egg proteins __that irreversibly clump together from the abuse, to form tight, gritty knots.

The best cooks are usually those who have discovered enough tricks to beat the system when mistakes inevitably happen.

There aren’t any edible ways to uncoagulate an egg or selectively pull out sodium and chlorine from an over-salted sauce, but we can fool our brains into overlooking those irreversible changes. Workarounds are solutions __that allow us to trick our senses to get to our intended flavor destination. When overcooked hollandaise turns into lumpy scrambled eggs, we can’t untangle the individual proteins, but we can grind them in a blender until they’re small enough that our tongues forget they exist.

When we add too much salt to a pesto (after running out of basil), we can add more oil, which helps to coat the tongue and prevent some of the water-soluble salt from making the journey to our taste receptors. Flavor perception is a complex labyrinth of sensory cues, and the best cooks are usually those who have discovered enough trap doors to beat the system when mistakes inevitably happen.

Even when the initially conceived dish is no longer an option, all is not lost. When a workaround isn’t possible, it’s time to pivot. These situations can complicate and delay dinner plans, but the pursuit of ways to repurpose “ruined” food can yield some awesome and unexpected results. Tough, dry steak can be ground up to form the base of a savory Bolognese sauce; overcooked, mushy rice turns out to make a great binder for croquettes; and chefs in restaurants around the country are burning onions on purpose, to later use in small quantities as a smoky-sweet addition to spice blends and marinades.

Whether you’re heating ramen noodles in a dorm room microwave or working the fish station at the best restaurant in the world, mistakes are gonna happen. The good news is that there are lots of ways to fix nearly any mistake, and they seldom involve a trash can.

Prince of Wales joins soil boosting project

Prince of Wales Image copyright Getty Images

The Prince of Wales is joining an Anglo-French government initiative to improve the condition of global soils.

Ministers from both governments are meeting the prince to discuss how to improve soil health and reduce greenhouse gas emissions from farming.

Typically the focus of cutting greenhouse gases has fallen on transport and industry, but France says agriculture must play its part.

Ministers will debate how to store more carbon in soils.

They will also discuss how to restore degraded soils, improve fertility and increase food security.

The French farm ministry says farming and forestry can contribute between 20% and 60% of potential cuts in greenhouse gases up to to 2030.

It says changes to farming methods can save 12-15 million tonnes of CO2 through livestock farming alone. It lists the need for:

  • covers for slurry pits, biogas flares, converting slurry to usable methane, improved animal feed;
  • better fertiliser use with more precise dosage of chemicals and use of manure, and
  • carbon storage in soils using soil cover crops, simpler working of the soil and, longer crop rotations.

Previous attempts to nudge Britain's farmers into cutting emissions have largely failed. The Committee on Climate Change noted __that emissions from agriculture have been broadly level since 2008 while industry and power generation emissions have dropped sharply.

The French farm ministry quotes statistics from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) projecting __that farming and forestry can contribute between 20% and 60% of potential cuts in greenhouse gases up to 2030.

Specific actions

Peter Melchett from the Soil Association told BBC News: "The French initiative is extraordinarily important. It has put greenhouse gas emissions from farming on the global climate change agenda for the first time since Kyoto (the first climate agreement in 1997).

"It highlights the desperate need to stop emissions of greenhouse gases from soils - especially lowland drained peat - and the huge potential for sequestering carbon in agricultural soils."

The Commons Environmental Audit Committee (EAC) recommended in May that in order to implement an initiative from last year's Paris climate summit to increase soil carbon levels by 0.4% per year, the government should set out specific, measurable and time-limited actions.

The government responded agreed the importance of the initiative and said it was investigating what action to take.

Lord Krebs from the Committee on Climate Change said: "The health of the UK's soils is of critical importance for the productive capacity of our agricultural land.

"A combination of population and economic growth are expected to increase global demand for food in the future. At the same time, climate change could reduce the capacity of the land globally to keep pace with growing demand.

"It is, therefore, essential that we are doing all we can to protect the long-term productive capacity of our agricultural soils."

The Anglo-French meeting has been organised by The Prince of Wales' International Sustainability Unit in collaboration with both governments.

Follow Roger on Twitter.

Fighting A Case Of Really Bad Gas

If climate change were an action thriller, CO2 would have a starring role as the fallen hero. A judicious dose of the heat-trapping gas keeps our planet cozy. Over the last century, CO2 has grown in power and slipped towards the dark side — flooding cities, shriveling farmland and conjuring up über-powerful storms.

In this story, CO2 has an irredeemable accomplice, HFC-134a, a less abundant — but far more powerful — greenhouse gas. Unlike CO2, HFC-134a was created in a lab. He has no role in preserving the long-term health of the climate.

The fight over climate change is focused almost exclusively on CO2. Last year, the nations of Earth vowed to slow his advance across our skies. Left out of __that groundbreaking accord was any mention of HFC-134a.

This month, countries pledged to stop this villain, too, driving the molecule out from the nooks and crannies where he lurks. This new pact has the farsighted ambition and legal force to make a huge difference.

To appreciate why, we’ll need to understand what makes CO2 and HFC-134a tick. But first, let’s establish the setting of this story.

Earth’s atmosphere

The sky may appear impossibly vast, but the troposphere—where we live and breathe — is just a few miles thick. If you are standing in the middle of Brooklyn, New York, then you are closer to outer space than you are to the Jersey Shore— a fact which may come as some relief.

The thin varnish of gasses coating our planet is populated almost entirely by molecules of N2 and O2, nitrogen and oxygen, respectively. O2 gives life to humans and other animals. N2 nourishes plants. Together, they lend the sky its blue color.

In the story of climate change, these molecules are blameless. N2 and O2 are each comprised of just two atoms. Because of their simple molecular structure, they are unable to absorb the infrared light that’s warming the planet.

CO2

CO2 — or carbon dioxide, as he’s known to his friends — is the primary culprit in global warming. Comprised of three atoms, he sports the heft and complexity needed to absorb planet-cooking infrared light. CO2 can be found escaping the back end of your car or the smokestack of your local power plant.

Once CO2 makes it into the atmosphere, he will stick around for centuries. So, while he doesn’t trap a lot of heat, he will outlive our grandchildren’s grandchildren. This is what makes him so dangerous.

HFC-134a

HFC-134a is short for hydrofluorocarbon. Like CO2, he belongs to the band of baddies. Mercifully, HFC-134a does not linger in the atmosphere for long — just a few years. But at eight atoms, he is much larger than his compatriot, and he absorbs far more infrared light. In the short term, HFC-134a has 3,790 times the heating power of CO2.

HFC-134a can be found in air conditioners and refrigerators. He was recruited to these tasks because he inflicted less damage to the ozone layer than his predecessor, R-134a. The bitter irony is __that he has proved to be an extremely potent greenhouse gas.

What this means

The new pact to reign in HFC-134a could really take off the heat. World leaders have vowed to limit warming to just 2º C, and we are already halfway there.

CO2 is by far the biggest threat to our health, safety and prosperity. His impact is permanent. His presence will be felt for generations to come.

To ward off catastrophic warming, we must also dispense with the powerful, if short-lived, gasses that will cook the planet in the near term. By thwarting HFC-134a, we can focus on the larger threat.

Jeremy Deaton and Mina Lee write and produce original artwork for Nexus Media, a syndicated newswire covering climate, energy, policy, art and culture. You can follow them at @deaton_jeremy and @minalee89.

The environmental costs of Heathrow expansion

heathrow Image copyright Getty Images
Image caption There are environmental concerns about noise, air pollution and climate change

Significant questions about the environmental impacts of Heathrow's new runway remain unanswered in the wake of the government's announcement.

Opponents say __that the expansion will make air quality and noise pollution much worse.

It makes a complete mockery of the government's commitments on cutting carbon emissions, they say.

But supporters of the airport say __that developments in technology will mitigate many negative consequences.

Third runway at Heathrow cleared for takeoff

What happens next?

Why expansion is taking so long

Is new runway more important post-Brexit?

The green price of Heathrow expansion

Death sentence for Heathrow villages

In its final report on Heathrow last year, the Airports Commission was clear that an extra runway at the UK's biggest flight centre would be an opportunity to right some of the environmental wrongs that have developed through ad hoc expansion over the years.

These include increased levels of noise for local residents, consistent breaches of air pollution safety levels and increasing amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions.

Perhaps the easiest of these issues to tackle is noise.

The Airports Commission suggested that a "noise envelope" should be agreed and Heathrow would be legally bound to stay within these limits.

There should also be an increased noise levy to benefit local communities - and an independent aviation noise committee should be established with a statutory right to be consulted on operating procedures.

Image copyright Getty Images
Image caption Campaigners say they will attempt to mount legal challenges against the expansion

In their statement announcing the airport's expansion, the government gave some clear indications of how it will tackle this question.

It will propose a six-and-a-half hour ban on scheduled night flights for the first time. It will also propose new legally binding noise targets that will encourage the use of quieter planes - and there will be a pot of cash, some £700m, to pay for noise insulation for local residents.

On the other two key environmental impacts the government is on far trickier ground.

When it comes to dirty air, the UK has been breaching EU limits for nitrogen dioxide (NO2) since 2010 in a number of different regions and cities. This pollutant is produced from diesel engines and is linked to a range of respiratory illnesses.

Heathrow has long been a hot spot for this type of air pollution due to heavy traffic in the vicinity - so much so that the Department for Food, Environment and Rural Affairs (Defra) projected that even without expansion, the A4 running north of the airport would still exceed EU safety limits for nitrogen dioxide in 2030.

The airport points to recent independent research that says the expansion would only lead to a "marginal" increase in NO2 from Heathrow as there would be significant reductions elsewhere thanks to changes in diesel engines and greater use of electric vehicles.

Campaigners are not impressed with this conclusion.

"The measures that people have put forward seem fairly far fetched in terms of implementation," said Tim Johnson, from the Aviation Environment Federation.

"Ideas like taking diesel cars off the road are indeed potential solutions, but how do you get consumer change that makes that happen in the time scale?"

Perhaps the biggest environmental challenge of the expansion is the impact on climate change goals.

Existing UK legislation commits the government to cut CO2 levels by 80% of 1990 levels in 2050.

Image copyright CLEANAIRLONDON
Image caption In 2010 this image shows both central London and the area around Heathrow exceeding EU safe levels for nitrogen dioxide

Aviation right now accounts for around 6% of UK emissions. To meet the legal target, emissions from this sector would would have to stay below the 2005 mark.

This could be partly achieved with improvements in fuel and aircraft operational efficiency and the wider use of biofuels, says the independent Committee on Climate Change (CCC).

They are calling on the government to publish a strategic policy framework for UK aviation emissions to limit them to 2005 levels.

To keep below the target, the CCC says that "this could imply limiting the growth in demand to around 60% above 2005 levels by 2050 (45% above current levels)."

That could mean the government having to cut airport capacity in regional airports or have other sectors of the economy make deeper emissions cuts.

"You only have so much carbon to go round," said Tim Johnson.

"The government will have to decide how best to distribute that, if they decide to use that for a new runway then there will have to be a hit elsewhere."

But speaking in the House of Commons, Transport Secretary Chris Grayling refuted the suggestion that the expansion of Heathrow was bad for the climate.

"We take the issue of climate change very seriously and this government has a whole raft of measures in place to address the issue, but we also have to make sure that we have the prosperity in this country to do things like funding our NHS and funding our old age pensions, and having a thriving modern economy with strong links around the world is an important part of that."

Other campaigning groups believe the lack of a clear plan on how to mitigate increases in CO2 make the third runway a very bad idea.

"With the government poised to sign the Paris climate agreement, it's decision to expand Heathrow - shortly after forcing fracking on the people of Lancashire - looks deeply cynical," said Andrew Pendleton, from Friends of the Earth.

"However this is only the first step on a long journey that will see communities, councils and climate campaigners continue the battle to reverse this misjudged and damaging decision."

One area in which there is a little dispute over the benefits of Heathrow's expansion is in regard to wildlife. The airport has committed to a £105m plan to transform a green area near the airport, into a haven four times the size of Hyde Park.

Follow Matt on Twitter @mattmcgrathBBC and on Facebook.

CO2 levels mark 'new era' in the world's changing climate

CO2 levels globally Image copyright NASA
Image caption A depiction of the global sources of CO2 which are dominated by the US, China and Europe

Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere have surged past an important threshold and may not dip below it for "many generations".

The 400 parts per million benchmark was broken globally for the first time in recorded history in 2015.

But according to the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), 2016 will likely be the first full year to exceed the mark.

The high levels can be partly attributed to a strong El Niño event.

Gas spike

While human emissions of CO2 remained fairly static between 2014 and 2015, the onset of a strong El Niño weather phenomenon caused a spike in levels of the gas in the atmosphere.

That's because the drought conditions in tropical regions produced by El Niño meant __that vegetation was less able to absorb CO2. There were also extra emissions from fires, sparked by the drier conditions.

In its annual Greenhouse Gas Bulletin, the World Meteorological Organisation says the conditions helped push the growth in the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere above the average for the last ten years.

At the atmospheric monitoring station in Mauna Loa, Hawaii, levels of CO2 broke through 400 parts per million (ppm), meaning 400 molecules of CO2 for every one million molecules in the atmosphere.

The last time CO2 was regularly above 400ppm was three to five million years ago, say experts.

Prior to 1800 atmospheric levels were around 280ppm, according to the US National Oceanic And Atmospheric Administration (Noaa).

The WMO says __that the rise through the 400ppm barrier has persisted and it's likely that 2016 will be the first full year when the measurements show CO2 above that benchmark, and "hence for many generations".

While the El Niño factor has now disappeared, the human impact on climate change has not, the WMO argues.

"The year 2015 ushered in a new era of optimism and climate action with the Paris climate change agreement," said WMO Secretary-General Petteri Taalas.

Image copyright NOAA
Image caption The air sampling station at Mauna Loa observatory in Hawaii which recorded CO2 levels going through 400ppm

"But it will also make history as marking a new era of climate change reality with record high greenhouse gas concentrations."

The report also details the growth in other greenhouse gases, including methane and nitrous oxide.

In 2015, levels of methane were 2.5 times greater than in the pre-industrial era, while nitrous oxide was 1.2 times above the historic measure.

The study also points to the impact of these increased concentrations of warming gases on the world's climate.

Between 1990 and 2015 there was a 37% increase in radiative forcing or warming effect, caused by a build up of these substances, from industrial, agricultural and domestic activities.

While welcoming new initiatives like the global agreement to phase out HFC gases agreed recently in Rwanda, the WMO argues that nations must retain their focus on cutting CO2.

"Without tackling CO2 emissions, we cannot tackle climate change and keep temperature increases to below 2 degrees C above the pre-industrial era," said Petteri Taalas.

"It is therefore of the utmost importance that the Paris Agreement does indeed enter into force well ahead of schedule on 4 November and that we fast-track its implementation."

Around 200 nations who signed the Paris climate agreement will meet in Morocco in November to decide on the next steps forward.

Follow Matt on Twitter @mattmcgrathBBC and on Facebook.

Neanderthals May Have Given Us Genital Warts

At some point in our evolutionary history, our Homo sapiens ancestors had sex with Neanderthals. Those cross-species trysts are the reason why almost everyone has a little bit of Neanderthal DNA in them today. Now, a new study published in the journal Molecular Biology and Evolution suggests __that in addition to genetic material, the ancient hominids may have given us a common sexually-transmitted infection: A version of the human papillomavirus (HPV) __that also causes cervical and oral cancers.

When humans and Neanderthals split into two species, the HPV virus evolved into different strains alongside them. Neanderthals and Denisovans carried a strain known as HPV16A. Early humans carried HPV16 B, C, and D. When humans migrated out of Africa around 60,000 years ago, they left those strains of HPV16 behind. But once they reached Europe and Asia, they encountered Neanderthals and their versions of the virus. They had sex, and that’s how humans acquired HPV16A.

“The history of humans is also the history of the viruses we carry and we inherit”

The researchers were able to trace the evolutionary origins of HPV16 using statistical modelling. They looked at 118 viral DNA sequences from around the globe and assembled a timeline based on mutations that periodically occurred in the virus. Then they compared this viral evolution timeline with what scientists already know about human evolution to figure out how HPV16 spread around the world.

“The history of humans is also the history of the viruses we carry and we inherit,” senior study author Ignacio Bravo of the French National Center for Scientific Research said in a statement. “Our work suggests that some aggressive oncogenic viruses were transmitted by sexual contact from archaic to modern humans.”

The research helps explain why there is almost no HPV16 in Sub-Saharan African any more, even though it’s incredibly common elsewhere. And further studies could reveal whether the differences in our genetic backgrounds are partially responsible for why an HPV infection clears up quickly in some people but lingers and causes cancer in others. But for now, it’s a reminder that you should practice safe sex no matter who you rendezvous with.

Schiaparelli: Mars probe 'crash site identified'

MRO image Image copyright NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS
Image caption The dark patch and white spot magnified on the right are likely the impact site and parachute

The gouge in the ground likely made by Europe's Schiaparelli probe as it hit the surface of Mars on Wednesday has been imaged by an American satellite.

The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) has identified a large dark patch in the robot's targeted landing zone consistent with a high-velocity impact.

Schiaparelli is widely thought to have crashed and been destroyed.

Data transmitted from the probe before it lost contact indicated __that its descent systems did not work properly.

Its parachute was jettisoned too early and its retrorockets, designed to slow the robot to a hover just above the surface, fired only for a few seconds. They should have operated for half a minute.

The MRO imagery is not quite definitive because the resolution is low - just six metres per pixel. Its context is persuasive, however.

The roughly 15m by 40m dark patch, which is probably dust and rock fragments thrown out from the impact, is sited some 5.5km west of Schiaparelli's expected touchdown point in the equatorial Meridiani Plain.

Tellingly, the feature is not present in previous MRO pictures of the location.

The clincher, though, may be the artefact 1km to the south of the patch. This white blob looks to be Schiaparelli's 15m-wide parachute which would have floated down behind the probe. Again, this was not present in earlier pictures.

Image copyright ESA
Image caption Artwork: Things started to go wrong at the end of the descent's parachute phase

The European Space Agency (Esa) and MRO's operator, the US space agency (Nasa), are confident the features described do indeed represent the scene of Schiaparelli's contact with the surface.

Engineers continue to analyse the telemetry the probe transmitted through the various phases of its descent before dropping radio contact unexpectedly about 50 seconds before the anticipated touchdown time.

They want to establish precisely why the parachute and rocket thrusters behaved the way they did. In due course, they hope also to be able to identify the height above the surface __that each event occurred.

Ultimately, the investigation should tell us at what stage in the descent sequence Schiaparelli went into freefall - somewhere between two and four km up - and the speed with which it smacked into the ground. This is estimated to be greater than 300km/h.

Media captionSchiaparelli's landing sequence - stage by stage

Further photographic insights will come from MRO next week when it flies back over the scene with its high-resolution (HiRISE) camera.

Generally, this can distinguish objects on the ground a mere 30cm to 60cm across, and can achieve even better when special processing techniques are employed.

Schiaparelli was part of Esa's ExoMars programme - a joint venture with the Russians - which is endeavouring to search for evidence of past or present life on the Red Planet.

The 600kg robot conceived as a technology demonstrator - a project to give Europe the learning experience and the confidence to go ahead with the landing on Mars in 2021 of an ambitious six-wheeled rover.

This future vehicle will use some of the same technology as Schiaparelli, including its doppler radar to sense the speed and distance to the surface on descent, and its guidance, navigation and control algorithms.

Esa director-general, Jan Woerner, said the fact that Schiaparelli returned 80% of its anticipated descent telemetry makes it a success, irrespective of what happened in its last seconds.

"[The 80%] means we will obtain information from a close analysis of the data that Schiaparelli was built for, notably on the performance of elements such as the heat shield, parachute, radar, thrusters and so on," he wrote on his blog.

"This information can subsequently be used to improve the design of the [2021] Exomars mission, since in that mission the survival of the descent module will be of real scientific relevance."

Jonathan.Amos-INTERNET@bbc.co.uk and follow me on Twitter: @BBCAmos

The Death Of A Mars Lander And A Camera-Focused Smartphone

Snow leopards: Numbers decline due to 'retaliation'

snow leopard Image copyright David Lawson
Image caption Human wildlife conflict has been responsible for the greater number of snow leopards poached in recent years

Hundreds of snow leopards are being killed by poachers every year across the high mountain ranges of Asia, according to a new report.

It's estimated there are just 4,000 of these elegant but elusive creatures now surviving in the wild.

Around four a week are being poached say experts, with most killed by local people in revenge for livestock losses.

The report highlights concerns __that the illegal trade in snow leopard skins is moving online to evade the law.

Living at altitude

The highly camouflaged snow leopard is found across 12 countries __that sweep around the Himalayan and Tibetan plateaus. These include China, Bhutan, Nepal, India, Pakistan as well as Mongolia, Tajikistan and Russia.

Image copyright Alamy
Image caption The animals can survive in the cold thanks to their thick hairy coats and furry feet

The animals normally live at altitudes between 1,000 and 5,400 metres above sea level. Insulated against the cold by thick hair and fur covered feet, these nomadic leopards prey upon blue sheep and mountain ibex and other smaller creatures.

Given that they can kill animals three times their weight, their ability to hunt domestic sheep and cattle brings them into difficulties with farmers across their ranges.

According to this new study between 221 and 450 snow leopards have been poached every year since 2008. The authors say that while that number could be substantially higher, the main cause is human-wildlife conflict.

"We think that what most observations, seizure records and expert opinion shows is that the majority is still happening because of retaliatory killing," said James Compton from Traffic.

Image copyright Roller Ma Ming
Image caption The teeth, claws and bones of the snow leopard are in demand as well as their skins

"One of the major interventions to stop that is better protection for livestock, in some of these very remote areas where you have nomad communities and herds of livestock, because that's where the friction takes place."

Over 90% of the reported poaching occurred in just five countries, China, Mongolia, Pakistan, India and Tajikistan. The report also suggests that only 21% of snow leopards were poached specifically for the illegal trade - but there seem to be many expedient attempts to cash in on the value of the skins and bones of these animals when they are killed.

Image copyright Marten van Dijl
Image caption The powerful camouflage of the snow leopard's coat makes them hard to see in snowy, mountainous locations

"The snow leopard doesn't turn up that often in markets, what the report authors have concluded is that it's a bit opportunistic, if a snow leopard is killed and the parts or the pelt is saleable it's almost like getting your own back for the livestock you've lost," said James Compton.

One of the worries is the rise of clandestine sales on social media and e-commerce. As well as skins and furs there is a market online for claws and teeth, which are advertised as having medicinal properties.

Image copyright Jura Bahriev
Image caption This snow leopard was killed by a villager in Tajikistan after it attacked sheep and goats

With a third of the snow leopard's range falling along international borders that have seen considerable conflict in recent years, the report calls for greater cross-border co-operation, especially on law enforcement. At present just a quarter of known cases of poaching are investigated.

The study also calls for greater incentives for local communities to protect these iconic animals.

"Even if there is reduced demand for snow leopard skins, the killing will continue unless we all work together to drastically reduce human-wildlife conflict and ensure that mountain communities can co-exist with snow leopards," said Rishi Sharma, from WWF who is a co-author of the report.

"Compensation schemes and innovative predator-proof corrals are making a difference but we urgently need to expand these to benefit communities - and snow leopards - across Asia's high mountains."


Positive steps for the snow leopard

While there is increasing pressure on snow leopards from humans and a changing climate, there have been some successful attempts to reverse these trends.

In Kyrgyzstan, an initiative involving the government and conservationists has seen a former hunting concession in Shamshy turned into a wildlife sanctuary. The growth in the numbers of ibex has seen a number of snow leopards re-enter the area, as evidenced by photographs.

Image copyright DAVID SHEPHERD TRUST
Image caption In the Shamshy region of Kyrgyzstan snow leopards have been caught on camera showing that conservation is making a difference

"The first camera trapped images of these elusive big cats to come from the area are a powerful reminder that, if we work together we can secure key wildlife habitats so that species like the snow leopard are given the levels of protection needed to survive," said Sally Case from the David Shepherd Foundation, who are working with the Kyrgyz government and the Snow Leopard Trust to develop the Shamshy sanctuary.

While the area is too small to be able to host a sizeable snow leopard population, it could serve as the core of a larger habitat in years to come.

"We are thrilled to see that the snow leopard is already in Shamshy," said Musaev Almaz, from the Kyrgyz government's department of rational use of natural resources.

"This cat is an important part of our national culture and heritage, we are committed to securing its future."


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